LPI 010-160 - Linux Essentials Certificate Exam - version 1.6

 Web browser cookies are small pieces of data that are stored by a website on a user’s browser. They are used to remember information about the user, such as preferences, login details, shopping cart items, etc. Cookies can also be used to identify and track users across different websites, which can have implications for privacy and security. For example, cookies can be used to show targeted ads based on the user’s browsing history, or to collect personal information without the user’s consent. Cookies are not inherently dangerous, but they can pose some risks if they are misused or compromised by malicious actors. References:

Linux Essentials - Linux Professional Institute (LPI), section 1.4.2

1.4 Lesson 1 - Linux Professional Institute Certification Programs, slide 18

 Ubuntu Linux LTS and Red Hat Enterprise Linux are two Linux distributions that meet the requirements of hosting services for a period of several years and receiving important security updates from their Linux distribution. LTS stands for Long Term Support, which means that these versions of Ubuntu Linux are supported by Canonical, the company behind Ubuntu, for five years with security patches, bug fixes, and software updates1. Red Hat Enterprise Linux is a commercial Linux distribution that offers a stable and secure platform for enterprise applications, with a 10-year life cycle and regular security updates from Red Hat, the company behind RHEL2. Fedora Linux, Debian GNU/Linux Unstable, and Ubuntu Linux non-LTS are not suitable for the requirements, because they have shorter support cycles and are more focused on providing the latest features and software versions, rather than stability and security. Fedora Linux releases a new version every six months and each version is supported for 13 months3. Debian GNU/Linux Unstable is the development branch of Debian, which is constantly updated with new packages and changes, but is not intended for production use4. Ubuntu Linux non-LTS releases a new version every six months and each version is supported for nine months1. References:

Ubuntu release cycle | Ubuntu

Red Hat Enterprise Linux Life Cycle - Red Hat Customer Portal

Fedora Release Life Cycle - Fedora Project Wiki

Debian Unstable - Debian Wiki

To remove a directory, you need to use a command that can delete directories, not just files. The rm command can only remove files by default, unless you use the -r option, which stands for recursive. This option tells rm to delete the directory and all of its contents, including subdirectories and files. The rmdir command can also remove directories, but only if they are empty. If the directory contains any files or subdirectories, rmdir will fail and display an error message. Therefore, the correct commands to remove Downloads, assuming it is empty, are rmdir Downloads and rm -r Downloads. The other commands are either invalid or do not work on directories. References:

Linux Essentials - Linux Professional Institute (LPI), section 2.3.1

LPI Linux Essentials Study Guide: Exam 010 v1.6, 3rd Edition, chapter 4, page 93.

The passwd command in Linux is used to change the password of a user account. A normal user can run passwd to change their own password, and a system administrator (the superuser) can use passwd to change another user’s password, or define how that account’s password can beused or changed1. The passwd command can also be used to lock or unlock a user account. Locking a user account means disabling the user’s ability to log in to the system, while unlocking a user account means restoring the user’s ability to log in. To lock a user account, the passwd command can be used with the -l option, followed by the username. To unlock a user account, the passwd command can be used with the -u option, followed by the username12. The passwd command cannot be used to change a user’s username, create a new user account, or create a new user group. These tasks require different commands, such as usermod, useradd, orgroupadd345. References: 1: Linux Passwd Command Help and Examples 2: Passwd command in Linux: 8 Practical Examples 3: usermod(8) - Linux man page 4: useradd(8) - Linux man page 5: groupadd(8) - Linux man page

Most commands on Linux can display information on their usage by running the command with the option -h or --help. This option shows a brief summary of the command syntax, options, arguments, and examples. For example, running ls -h or ls --help will display the usage information for the ls command, which lists files and directories. The -h or --help option is a standard convention for most Linux commands, and it is useful for learning how to use a command or checking its available options. However, some commands may not support this option, or may use a different option to display usage information. In that case, you can use the man command to access the manual page for the command, which provides more detailed information on the command usage, description, options, arguments, examples, and references. For example, running man ls will display the manual page for the ls command. The man command is one of the applications covered in the Linux Essentials certification program from the Linux Professional Institute (LPI). References:

Linux Essentials - Linux Professional Institute (LPI)

Linux Commands Cheat Sheet: Beginner to Advanced - GeeksforGeeks

The distribution’s package repository is the preferred source for the installation of new applications in a Linux based operating system. A package repository is a collection of software packages that are maintained by the distribution and can be easily installed, updated, or removed using a package manager. Package repositories offer several advantages, such as:

They ensure compatibility and stability with the system and other packages.

They provide security updates and bug fixes for the packages.

They reduce the risk of malware or corrupted files.

They simplify the dependency management and configuration of the packages.

The other sources are not preferred because they may not offer these benefits and may cause problems with the system. The vendor’s version management system, the vendor’s website, or a CD-ROM disk may contain packages that are not compatible with the distribution or may conflict with other packages. A retail store may not have the latest or the most suitable packages for the system. References:

Linux Essentials - Linux Professional Institute (LPI), section 1.3 Installing, Updating and Removing Software Packages

LPI Linux Essentials Study Guide: Exam 010 v1.6, 3rd Edition, chapter 4 Working on the Command Line, section 4.2 Managing Software

Table of Contents - Linux Professional Institute Certification Programs, section 1.3 Installing, Updating and Removing Software Packages

The command pwd stands for “print working directory”. It will print the absolute path of the current working directory to the terminal. For example, if we are currently in the /home/user/directory, it will print out that exact path1. The pwd command is useful for finding out where we are in the file system hierarchy and for verifying the location of files and directories2.

The other options are not commands that show the absolute path to the current working directory. The who command shows the users who are currently logged in to the system3. The cd … command changes the current working directory to the parent directory of the current one2. The ls -l command lists the files and directories in the current working directory in a long format, which shows the permissions, ownership, size, date, and name of each file and directory2. The cd ~/home command changes the current working directory to the /home directory under the user’s home directory, which may or may not exist2. References:

Linux Essentials Exam Objectives, Version 1.6, Topic 103.1, Weight 2

Linux Essentials Certification Guide, Chapter 3, Page 51-52

How to Get the current directory in Linux - howtouselinux

How To Find The Absolute Path Of A File Or Directory In Linux - systranbox

 The /usr/share/doc/ directory is the standard location for documentation files for installed software packages on Linux systems12. It contains subdirectories for each package, which may include README files, manuals, license information, changelogs, examples, and other useful resources12. The /usr/share/doc/ directory is part of the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS), which defines the structure and layout of files and directories on Linux and other Unix-like operating systems3.

The other options are incorrect because:

/etc/defaults/ is a directory that contains settings for userland applications or services/daemons4.

/var/info/ is not a standard directory on Linux systems. The /var/ directory is used for variable data files, such as logs, caches, spools, and temporary files3.

/doc/ is not a standard directory on Linux systems. The / directory is the root of the filesystem hierarchy and contains essential files and directories for booting, restoring, recovering, and/or repairing the system3.

/usr/examples/ is not a standard directory on Linux systems. The /usr/ directory is used for shareable, read-only data, such as binaries, libraries, documentation, and source code3.

References:

Linux configuration: Understanding *.d directories in /etc | Enable Sysadmin

Configuration Files in Linux | Baeldung on Linux

Filesystem Hierarchy Standard - Wikipedia

Which of the Following Directories Contains Information, Documentation …

A process ID on Linux is a unique integer value that identifies a running process. The process ID can range from 0 to a maximum limit, which is usually 32768 or higher, depending on the system configuration. The process ID of 0 is reserved for the kernel’s idle task, and the process ID of 1 is reserved for the init system, which is the first process launched by the kernel. The process IDs are assigned sequentially to new processes, and are recycled when a process terminates. Therefore, the only valid value for a process ID among the given options is 21398, which is an integer within the possible range. The other values are not valid process IDs because they are either strings, hexadecimal numbers, or file paths, which do not match the format of a process ID on Linux. References:

Linux Essentials - Linux Professional Institute (LPI)

How Are Linux PIDs Generated? | Baeldung on Linux